FLOPpy: A hardware-agnostic Python library to monitor the computational cost of Machine and Deep Learning algorithms

FLOPpy is a versatile Python library designed to monitor and estimate the algorithmic workload of both Deep Learning (PyTorch) and Machine Learning (Scikit-learn) models.

By systematically tracking Floating Point Operations (FLOPs) and BOPs (Bit-OPerations), it provides a hardware-independent assessment of the total computational demand, spanning from standard Forward and Backward passes to Optimizer updates and Loss evaluations.

🚀 Key Features

• Hardware-Agnostic Monitoring: Provides a standardized measure of computational demand that does not depend on specific hardware characteristics or infrastructure;
• Cross-Framework Support: Seamlessly profile models from torch (including Hugging Face models) and scikit-learn using a unified API;
• Modular Architecture: Designed with a provider pattern and structural decoupling, allowing easy extension to other backends;
• Full Pipeline Tracking: Go beyond simple inference, monitor the cost of training (Backward pass), Loss computation, Optimizer steps, and even pre-processing operations like tokenization;
• Transparent Integration: Zero-boilerplate integration via a non-intrusive, hook-based architecture and safe monkey-patching;
• The "Escape Hatch": Native support for tracking quantized layers (e.g., 4-bit, 8-bit) and fused/custom optimizers (BitsAndBytes, Apex, DeepSpeed) that typically bypass standard profilers;
• Reproducibility: Unlike execution time or energy metrics, FLOPs and BOPs reflect the intrinsic complexity of an algorithm, ensuring consistent results across different systems;
• Real-time Integration: Supports seamless synchronization with Weights & Biases (WandB) for real-time visualization.

📊 Why FLOPpy?

In an era of large-scale models and specialized hardware, execution time is no longer a sufficient metric for efficiency. FLOPpy allows researchers and developers to:

1. Compare the efficiency of different architectures regardless of the GPU/CPU used;
2. Quantify the real computational savings of quantization (FP16 vs INT8 vs INT4);
3. Identify bottlenecks in the training loop, including the often-overlooked optimizer overhead.

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📦 Installation

pip install floppy-tracker

📖 Usage

Integration is transparent and does not require modifications to the model implementation.

PyTorch / Hugging Face Example

import torch.nn as nn
from floppy import FLOPpyTracker, WandbConfiguration
from transformers import AutoModel

wandb_config = WandbConfiguration(
  project_name="your_experiment",
  group_name="your_group",
  reporter_key="your_wandb_key_here"
)

# 1. Define your model, loss and optimizer
model = nn.Sequential(nn.Linear(10, 10), nn.ReLU())
loss_fn = nn.CrossEntropyLoss()
optimizer = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters())
num_epochs = 10

# 2. Initialize the tracker
tracker = FLOPpyTracker(run_name="pytorch_experiment")

# 3. Run monitoring
tracker.run(model=model, optimizer=optimizer, loss_fn=loss_fn)

# 4. Do something with the model
for _ in range(num_epochs):
  for xb, yb in your_data_loader:
    optimizer.zero_grad()
    y_hat = model(xb)
    loss = loss_fn(y_hat, yb)
    loss.backward()
    optimizer.step()
    tracker.batch()

  tracker.epoch()

# 5. Access the report
report = tracker.report()
print(report)

Scikit-learn Example

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from floppy import FLOPpyTracker

# 1. Define your model
model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100)

# 2. Initialize the tracker
tracker = FLOPpyTracker(run_name="sklearn_test")

# 3. Run monitoring
tracker.run(model=model)

# 4. Do something with the model
model.fit(X_train, y_train)
preds = model.predict(X_test)

# 5. Access the report
report = tracker.report(print_summary=True)

🔬 Methodology

🛠️ Computational Strategy & Backends

FLOPpy employs high-precision, transparent strategies across different frameworks to ensure maximum accuracy without requiring any changes to the user's original code.

PyTorch: Unified Dispatch & Patching

The library avoids the overhead and limitations of traditional per-module hooks by operating directly at the functional and tensor level:

• Root Hooks & Low-Level Dispatching: Instead of attaching hooks to every single sub-module, FLOPpy attaches a single boundary hook to the root model. Inside this forward pass, it deploys TorchDispatchMode via the UniversalFlopCounter to intercept underlying C++ ATen dispatch calls in real-time. This captures all mathematical operations, including those occurring outside of standard nn.Module objects, such as residual skip connections and element-wise tensor manipulations;
• Transparent Backward Tracking: Implements safe monkey-patching of torch.Tensor.backward. This encapsulates the entire Autograd graph execution within a tracking context, overcoming the well-known architectural limitations of standard PyTorch backward hooks on container modules (e.g., nn.Sequential);
• Optimizer & Loss Hooks: Utilizes targeted TorchTrainingHooks to intercept optimizer.step() calls and loss function evaluations. It features a specialized "Escape Hatch" fallback logic to accurately estimate the workload of fused or quantized optimizers (e.g., BitsAndBytes, Apex, DeepSpeed) that execute custom C++/CUDA kernels and bypass the standard PyTorch dispatcher.

Scikit-Learn: Dynamic API Wrapping

The SklearnBackend implements a non-intrusive method-wrapping strategy to seamlessly support classical Machine Learning workflows:

• Method Interception: Automatically wraps standard API methods—fit(), predict(), and transform()—to extract input and output array dimensions at runtime.
• Semantic Mapping: Intelligently maps execution phases to ensure report consistency across both Deep Learning and Machine Learning frameworks:
  • fit() operations are reported as Model (Backward) to represent the training and weight-update phase;
  • predict() and transform() operations are reported as Model (Forward) to represent the inference phase;
• Algorithmic Complexity: Applies targeted mathematical complexity formulas (e.g., $O(n_{trees} \cdot n_{samples} \cdot \log_2(n_{samples}))$ for Random Forests) based on array shapes and data types to provide accurate, hardware-independent workload and BOPs estimates.

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📊 Detailed Reporting

The FLOPpyReport object provides a detailed, phase-aware breakdown of the computational workload:

• model_forward_flops & model_forward_bops: The algorithmic cost and precision-aware hardware effort (Bit-Operations) of the forward pass. In Scikit-learn workflows, this maps to inference methods like predict() and transform();
• model_backward_flops & model_backward_bops: The computational workload required for the training phase. This captures the Autograd gradient calculation in Deep Learning, or the fit() method in classical Machine Learning;
• loss_forward_flops & loss_forward_bops: The operations and actual hardware effort explicitly tied to evaluating the loss function;
• optimizer_flops & optimizer_bops: The computational overhead of the optimization step (e.g., weight updates, momentum). It accounts for the specific bit-width used, accurately tracking even fused or quantized optimizers (e.g., 8-bit Adam) via the built-in Escape Hatch;
• preproc_ops: Workload from input preparation, such as tokenizer operations for Large Language Models;
• System Environment: A detailed snapshot of the execution context, including CPU/GPU specifications, RAM, OS, and active library versions (e.g., PyTorch, Scikit-learn).

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✍️ Authors & Citation

Francesco Scala, Francesco Mandarino, Liliana Martirano, and Luigi Pontieri. Institute of High Performance Computing and Networking (ICAR-CNR) & University of Calabria, Italy.

If you use FLOPpy in your research, please cite:

 @article{SCALA2026102865,
  title = {FLOPpy: A hardware-agnostic Python library to monitor the computational cost of machine and deep learning algorithms},
   journal = {SoftwareX},
   volume = {35},
   pages = {102865},
   year = {2026},
   issn = {2352-7110},
   doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.softx.2026.102865},
   url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352711026003572},
   author = {Francesco Scala and Francesco Mandarino and Liliana Martirano and Luigi Pontieri},
   keywords = {Green AI, Computational workload, Hardware-agnostic, Deep learning, Machine learning, Floating point operations, Bit-operations}
}

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📄 License

This software is licensed under the GNU Public License v3.0 (GPL3).